Glossary

 

 

Adrenaline – is a hormone normally produced by both the adrenal glands and certain neurons.  It plays an important role in the fight-or-flight response by increasing blood flow to muscles, output of the heart, pupil dilation, and blood sugar.

 

Alcohol – One unit of alcohol (10ml) is the equivalent to:

A single measure of spirits (ABV 37.5%);

Half a pint of average-strength (4%) lager;

Two-thirds of a 125ml glass of average-strength (12%) wine;

Half a 175ml glass of average-strength (12%) wine;

One third of a 250ml glass of average-strength (12%) wine.

 

Alpha Waves – brain waves found when an individual is awake but relaxed with their eyes closed, and reduces when the eyes are opened or when the individual concentrates hard on something.

 

Autonomic Nervous System – This is the part of the nervous system responsible for the control of the bodily functions and consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat and the digestive system.

 

Basal Ganglia – A collection of neural cell bodies with a variety of functions including action selection, habit formation, reward reinforcement and emotion.

 

Beta Waves – brain waves which are active when an individual is actively moving.  It is also found when individuals are busy, anxious or actively concentrating.

 

BMI (body mass index) – This is a formula that estimates your amount of body fat by dividing your weight in kilograms by your height in metres squared. For example a 70kg male who is 1.80 metres tall has a BMI of 21.6 (70/3.24 (1.80 x 1.80). BMI defines above 25 is overweight and above 30 is obese. BMI is not very accurate in distinguishing muscle from fat.

 

Brain – The brain has evolved as three components: the hindbrain or brainstem, the mid brain and the forebrain.

 

Carbohydrates – Carbohydrates are easily metabolized, which just means chemically broken down, and used as the body’s main fuel source. All of our bodily tissues have the ability to use the simple carbohydrate, glucose, as energy. When the body uses carbohydrates for energy, it can use other macronutrients for other jobs, like tissue growth and repair.

The brain, kidneys, muscles and heart all need carbohydrates to function properly, and carbohydrates aid in the synthesis of certain amino acids. Furthermore, fats can only be properly metabolized when carbohydrates are present and indigestible carbohydrates, in the form of fiber, are necessary for intestinal health.

Carbohydrates are primarily found in starchy foods, like grain and potatoes, as well as fruits, milk, and yogurt. Other foods like vegetables, beans, nuts, seeds, and cottage cheese contain carbohydrates, but in lesser amounts. Carbohydrates can be simple or complex, which refers to their chemical structure. Simple carbohydrates taste very sweet (like fruit sugar), while complex carbohydrates taste savoury (like starch in potatoes).

 

Calcium – Helps build strong bones and teeth, regulates muscle contractions, including heartbeat, ensures blood clots normally.

 

Cervical muscles –  Muscles of the neck.

 

Cholesterol – A class of essential lipid that the body synthesises itself to keep our cells in tact. It is transported around the body by lipoproteins. High levels of cholesterol roughly correlate with heart disease, but its risk has been exaggerated. Its found in many foods, including fish and nuts.

 

Chyme – The pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food. 

 

Circulatory System – Also known as the vascular system and is composed of the heart, arteries and veins of the coronary, pulmonary (lungs), portal (responsible for directing blood from parts of the gastrointestinal tract to the liver) and systemic ((responsible for carrying oxygenated blood from the heart and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart) systems.

 

Cortisol – Cortisol is a steroid-based hormone and is synthesized from cholesterol and belongs to a group of hormones called glucocorticoids. Cortisol is made in the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland, which is near the kidney.

 

Dopamine – is a neurotransmitter, involved in controlling movement and posture, modulating mood and plays a central role in reward and addiction.

 

Endocrine System – This is the body’s communication system. It uses hormones to tell the body what to do.

 

Fascia – every part of the body is wrapped within a fibrous, fascial web of connective tissue, which consists predominantly of collagen, elastin and a substance consisting of water, various sugars and proteins.

 

Fats (Lipids) – Fats are substances that do not dissolve in water, and are necessary for survival. We need fat for things like the maintenance of cellular membranes, which are made from fats. They’re also a high-density energy source and help us absorb fat-soluble vitamins. In addition, lipids cushion organs and insulate the body. Fats provide raw materials for vitamin D and hormones, as well as give taste, consistency, and stability to foods and make us feel full after eating.

Fats are found in meat, poultry, nuts, milk products, butters and margarines, oils, lard, fish, grain products, and salad dressings. There are three main types of fat: saturated fat, non-saturated fat, and trans-fat.

 

Fibre – Is an indigestible form of carbohydrate. Since humans cannot break down fibre carbohydrates, they pass through the digestive system whole and take other waste products with them. Diets low in fibre have problems with waste elimination and constipation. Diets high in fibre have shown decreased risk for obesity, high cholesterol, and heart disease. Fruits, vegetables, and whole grain products all contain high amounts of fibre.

 

Folic Acid – makes red blood cells and keeps nervous system healthy. Helps release energy from food.

 

Fortified breakfast cereals – Some breakfast cereals are high in sugar and salt, but the up-side is that they are low in fat, high in energy-giving carbohydrates and, in many cases, rich in fibre. A fortified breakfast cereal will also add several vitamins and minerals to your diet as well as supply the goodness of milk.

 

Fortified low fat spread – Margarines have the same amount of total fat as butter, but with less saturated fat. Margarine is defined by law and has been produced in accordance with ‘The Spreadable Fats (Marketing Standards) Regulations, 1995’. Margarine must contain a minimum of 80%, but less than 90% fat and a maximum of 3% milk fat. It must also be fortified with vitamin A at levels of 800-1000µg per 100g and vitamin D at 7.05-8.82µg per 100g.

 

Ghrelin – Ghrelin is a hormone, which works in tandem with Leptin and regulates your appetite. When your stomach is close to empty, ghrelin sends a message to your brain that it is time to eat. After you have eaten, the hormone settles down whilst you are digesting your food. When you are on a diet and start to lose weight, ghrelin production can increase due to the reduction of food consumption.

 

Glycogen – Glycogen is the main way the body stores glucose for energy. The body can store about 2000 calories of glucose as glycogen.

 

Glucose – Glucose is commonly known as sugar and comes form the foods we eat such as carbohydrates like fruit, bread, pasta and cereals.

 

Glucagon – Glucagon is a hormone, which is important for carbohydrate metabolism and blood sugar control. Glucagon is a hormone produced by the pancreas that, along with insulin, controls the level of glucose in the blood. Glucagon has the opposite effect of insulin. It increases the glucose levels in blood. 

 

Gluconeogenesis – Gluconeogenesis is the process of synthesizing glucose in the body from non-carbohydrate sources such as lactate and pyruvate.

 

Glycogenesis – Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose. Glycogen is synthesized depending on the demand for glucose and energy. If both are present in relatively high amounts, then the excess of insulin promotes the glucose conversion into glycogen for storage in liver and muscle cells.

 

Habits – we are very good at creating patterns of behaviour in response to a stimulus.  These can either be created new each time we react to events (eg when we decide on a plan of action), or they can become fixed patterns in response to particular triggers – habits.

 

Homeostasis – A healthy state that is maintained by the constant adjustment of biochemical and physiological pathways between the mind and body.

 

Hypothalamus – within the forebrain, the hypothalamus (together with the pituitary gland) are the control panel for the body’s chemical factory.  They coordinate our reaction to hunger, thirst and also our aggressive responses.  They release chemicals into the our blood that are sensed by a range of organs including the kidneys, the thyroid and the adrenal glands.

 

Inferior – in anatomical terms is used to refer to what is above something. For example, the feet are the most inferior part of the human body.

 

Involuntary movement – An involuntary movement occurs when you move your body in an uncontrollable and unintended way.

 

Insulin – Insulin is a hormone made by the pancreas that allows your body to use sugar (glucose) from carbohydrates in the food that you eat for energy or to store glucose for future use. Insulin helps keeps your blood sugar level from getting too high (hyperglycemia) or too low (hypoglycemia).

 

Iron – helps make red blood cells, which carry oxygen around the body.

 

Islets of Langerhans – Known as the insulin-producing tissue, the islets of Langerhans do more than that. They are groups of specialized cells in the pancreas that make and secrete hormones. Named after the German pathologist Paul Langerhans (1847-1888), who discovered them in 1869, these cells sit in groups that Langerhans likened to little islands in the pancreas. There are five types of cells in an islet including alpha cells that make glucagon, beta cells that make insulin and delta cells that make somatostatin (which inhibits the release of numerous other hormones in the body).

 

Leptin – Leptin regulates appetite by signalling to the brain when you are full. If fat cells reduce due to dieting, leptin also reduces which means that when you are eating you don’t get a signal telling you that you are full, therefore as a consequence you keep eating.

 

Lumbar multifidus – Small powerful muscle that gives support to the lumbar spine.

 

Lymphatic System – A subsidiary circulation system entwined with the blood circulation. It provides a channel through which excess tissue fluid is returned to the bloodstream.

 

Metabolism – is a collection of chemical reactions that takes place in the body’s cells. Metabolism converts the fuel in the food we eat into the energy needed to power everything we do, from moving to thinking to growing.

 

Magnesium – Helps convert food to energy, helps the parathyroid glands work normally.

 

Macronutrients – There are three macronutrients required by humans: carbohydrates (sugar), fats (lipids), and proteins. Each of these macronutrients provides energy in the form of calories. For example:

• In carbohydrates, there are 4 calories per gram
• In proteins, there are 4 calories per gram
• In Fats, there are 9 calories per gram

This means that if you look at a food label and it lists 10 grams of carbohydrates, 0 grams of protein, and 0 grams of fat, that food would contain 40 calories.

 

Medulla Oblongata – It is a continuation of the spinal cord within the skull. It is responsible for autonomic (involuntary) functions. The medulla deals with the autonomic functions of breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.

 

Micronutrients – These include vitamins and minerals and play a crucial role in human nutrition, including the prevention and treatment of various diseases and conditions, as well as the optimization of physical and mental functioning. Understanding micronutrients is critical for anyone seeking to maintain or improve your health.

 

Muscular System – Contraction and relaxation enable the body to move. The muscular system comprises of the muscles of the body and their attachments – tendons, ligaments and fascia.

 

Nervous System – This is a communication and instruction network throughout the body. It is comprised of the brain, spinal cord and nerves.

 

Neurone – as the basic building block of the brain, these take a signal from one point and to communicate it to another, and interprets patterns to determine behaviour.

 

Neuroplasticity – the ability of the brain to form and reorganize synaptic connections, especially in response to learning or experience or following injury.  The importance of this process is that it gives the brain its huge capacity for change, and therefore learning and memory.  If the brain made synapses but did not unmake them, we would have no means to unlearn facts which are no longer useful to us (or true).

 

Neurotransmitter – A chemical that is released from a nerve cell which transmits an impulse from a nerve cell to another nerve, muscle, organ, or other tissue. A neurotransmitter is a messenger of neurologic information from one cell to another.

 

Noradrenalin – is a neurotransmitter involved in attentiveness, emotions, sleeping, dreaming and learning.  It is also released as a hormone into the blood, where it causes blood vessels to contract increasing blood pressure and causing heart rate to increase.  We recognise these changes as symptoms of stress and so can feel anxious or threatened.

 

Pantothenic Acid – Helps to release energy from the food we eat.

 

Parasympathetic Nervous System –  is a part of the Autonomic nervous system. It is sometimes referred to as the rest and digest system. It helps to conserve energy as it slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity and relaxes sphincter muscles in the gastrointestinal tract.

 

Peristalsis – Peristalsis is a series of wave-like muscle contractions that moves food to different processing stations in the digestive tract. The process of peristalsis begins in the esophagus when a bolus of food is swallowed.

 

Phrenic nerve – The phrenic nerve originates in the neck (C3-C5) and passes down between the lung and heart to reach the diaphragm. This nerve is the motor and sensory nerve of the diaphragm.

 

Potassium – Controlling the balance of fluids in the body, correct functioning of the heart muscle.

 

Protein – Protein is the major constituent of most cells and is used to produce new tissues for growth and tissue repair, and regulate and maintain body functions. Enzymes used for digestion, protection, and immunity is made of protein, and essential hormones used for body regulation require protein. Proteins may be used as a source of energy when carbohydrates are not available.

Protein is found in meats, poultry, fish, meat substitutes, cheese, milk, nuts, legumes, and in smaller quantities in starchy foods and vegetables. People who consume a vegetarian diet can get plenty of protein if they keep a balanced diet.

 ‘low quality’ proteins, and tend to come from plant sources.

 

Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) – Recommended intakes of nutrients vary by age and gender and are known as Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs).  

 

Respiratory System – This comprises of the nose, lungs, diaphragm and the air passage (trachea).

 

Saturated Fat – Most animal fats are saturated. Examples of foods containing a high proportion of saturated fat include animal fat products such as cream, cheese, butter, other whole milk dairy products and fatty meats, which also contain dietary cholesterol. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil and palm kernel oil. Many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage.

 

Scalene – Scalene are a group of three pairs of muscles in the lateral neck: scalenus anterior, scalenus medius and scalenus posterior. Sometimes a fourth muscle, the scalenus minimus is present behind the lower portion of the scalenus anterior.

 

Selenium – Important role in immune system function. Helps to prevent damage to cells and tissues.

 

Serotonin – is a neurotransmitter that contributes to various functions, such as regulating body temperature, sleep, mood, appetite and pain.  Seratonin also affects our response to stress.

 

Skeletal System – the bones and joints of the body.

 

Sodium – Helps keep the water and electrolyte balanced.

 

Sternum – the breastbone.

 

Sternocleidomastoid – A two-part muscle that attaches from behind the ear to the sternum and collar bone.

 

Sucrose – Sucrose is commonly known as table sugar, and is obtained from sugar cane or sugar beets. Fruits and vegetables also naturally contain sucrose.

 

Sympathetic Nervous System  – is a part of the Autonomic nervous system and is often referred to as the fight or flight response.

 

Unsaturated Fat – A fat that is in liquid form at room temperature and comes from a plant such as olive, peanut, corn, sunflower.

 

Vagus nerve – The vagus nerve is one of 12 cranial nerves and it supplies the heart, lungs, upper digestive tract and other organs of the chest and abdomen. The vagus nerve provides the parasympathetic supply for all the organs of the thorax and abdomen.

 

Vitamins:

Vitamin A – Helps immune system fight infection, helps vision in dim light, keeps skin and some body linings (nose) healthy.

Vitamin B’s

Vitamin B1 (Thiamin) – Works with other B-group vitamins to help break down and release energy from food.

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) – Helps your body build red blood cells and helps the body metabolize fat.

Vitamin B3 (Niacin) – Helps to release energy from the food we eat.

Vitamin B6 – Allows the body to use and store energy from protein and carbohydrates in food. Helps to form Haemoglobin.

Vitamin B7 (Biotin) – Essential for the metabolism of fat. Very small amounts needed.

Vitamin B12 – Important vitamin for maintaining healthy nerve cells, and it helps in the production of DNA. It works with B9 also called folate or folic acid to help make red blood cells and to help iron work better in the body.

Vitamin D – Helps the intestines absorb of calcium, iron, magnesium and zinc

Vitamin E – Acts an antioxidant. Helps maintain healthy skin, eyes and strengthens the immune system.

Vitamin K – Needed for blood clotting – helps wounds heal properly.

 

Voluntary movement – The responses of the nervous system to stimuli may be voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary responses are mainly under conscious control, but some voluntary movements, such as walking, require less conscious attention.

 

Zinc – Helps make new cells and enzymes, helps to process carbs, fat and protein in food and helps with the healing of wounds.